Research Topic

I am researching the National Security Agency’s surveillance of Americans and how this surveillance subverts democracy in America. My research topic is relevant both because of the revelations brought about by Edward Snowden’s release of classified government documents as well as a continuing technological trend where more and more data about people is collected by the companies and the government, placing everyone under some form of near constant surveillance.

 

Scholars have examined spying by the United States government since its invention, yet with the recent NSA surveillance revelations new emphasis has been placed on the study of these surveillance efforts. With the treasure trove of documents obtained after Edward Snowden, an NSA contract worker, leaked classified documents to several media publications, researchers have begun to analyze the different programs the NSA used to carry out this spying and their individualistic effects. Yet due to the recent nature of the document releases, there is not much research on the effect of this massive government surveillance as a whole. I am hoping that my RBA can address this area of research and provide new light on the overall effects of NSA surveillance. To do this I plan on examining both prior government spying efforts, especially those during the Cold War, to compare and contrast both the intentions behind this surveillance and its efficacy. I am planning on combining this prior knowledge with current research on the NSA programs to develop a holistic view of NSA spying practices and the effects on democracy in America. Specifically, certain research has been developed that allows for quantitative analysis of the chilling effects of surveillance on privacy in the modern era, and this research combined with research detailing the effects of past surveillance regimes can allow us to gain insight into the effects of surveillance before they have fully surfaced.

Understanding Presidential Masculinity & Gender Roles in American Politics

My research topic exams Hillary Clinton’s role in redefining the presidential masculinity and gender roles in American politics. As evidenced with our current political situation, gender roles and masculinity are still prevalent in American politics, therefore it is important to understand if and how progress has been made, in order to further advance and diversify our nation’s political system.

I’ve read a compilation of research that recognizes masculinity and manhood as essential elements of the American presidency. The president is viewed as a symbolic representation of the nation and manhood; thus, his display of masculinity reflects and reinforces masculine norms. The research I read used Clinton’s career in politics, and particularly her presidential campaign as first-hand evidence on how masculinity and gender roles affect women aspiring to attain a political seat. Lots of research sought to explain the purpose of men’s and women’s roles in politics, with men demonstrating superiority and women being submissive to their control. Research showed the correlation between gender support for each respective gender, i.e., men voting for men and women voting for women. Media played a large part in distinguishing the roles of men and women from each other, through the use of binary ideology. Men are often referred to as strong and women are weak; men are described as rational, while women are described as emotional. These strong contrasts played to the minds of the voter, revealing the effects gender stereotypes could have on an election.

In my RBA, I plan to focus on Hillary Clinton and her lifetime effort to redefine the values of society and American politics; from speaking out against the Cold War ideology of the sixties to becoming the first woman presidential nominee of the Democratic Party, Clinton has always been a trailblazer with an unconventional style.  Clinton has shattered the glass ceiling of containment, paving the way for future women and minorities to have a voice in their country. Research is severely lacking on the progress that Clinton has accomplished in politics, as Clinton’s efforts to reconstruct the gender norms of our nation were overshadowed by the results of the election.

My Research Topic

My research is on China’s widespread cyber-based economic espionage on the United States and how this is viewed as a national security threat. This is significant because 1) according to various sources, China has stolen billions of dollars in trade secrets 2) if this is a national security threat, then there should be a concerted effort to end this.

A 2016 Congressional report found that, without a doubt, China’s cyber activities are a danger to the United States. The report stated that China has compromised national security agencies and that they have been able to do this without impunity. Further, the authors wrote that this may help China in a conflict with the United States.

Other sources are not as bellicose. For example, one source argued that the China’s activities are focused on economic gain, not military advantage. I hope to show that viewing China as an enemy will be of great detriment to the United States. The United States and China are not rivals for control of the world, but two powers who need each other.

My Topic: the Lysenko Affair

My research topic is the Lysenko Affair, the Soviet rejection of Mendelian genetics, and its consequences for the formulation of science in the Modern era. The significance of my topic lies in how it can help us understand the roots of our current state-funded science policy and how we define science in a free society.

There are a couple veins in the current literature. One is the ideological analysis. There are many articles and books chronicling the link between Lysenkoism and Marxism or Stalin or other political concerns. While this is interesting to me, it also seems less applicable to today and I believe I would not be able to uncover something in the Soviet archives over the course of a two week assignment. Instead, I will be following the work of some scholars that analyze agrobiology in relation to the definition of science. My analysis will extend in two ways. First, I will incorporate the philosophy of science, either Karl Popper or Thomas Kuhn, to explain why science during the Lysenko affair underwent such convulsions. This will give more rigor to the analysis of science. Second, I will integrate the philosophy of science into the ideological analysis, showing how even Lysenko’s relation to Marxism can be understood as an extension of Marxism’s epistemological claims. While this is mentioned in the work of Roll-Hansen, I believe I can extend it further to recast the relationship between agrobiology and socialism.

Toys: A representation of future gender roles

My research topic explores how the design, marketing, and use of toys during the Cold War era affected gender roles and expectations in children. As gender roles are still a prevalent part of American culture in the 21st century, exploring toy’s relationship to gender is essential to understanding how prevailing gender stereotypes are passed down through generations of Americans.

After reading six different authors’ perspectives on this topic, several themes have emerged from their collective writings. First, many view the heavy emphasis on gender in the Cold War era as a nostalgic and romantic pursuance of past American culture and gender roles. By far the most popular toys and games in the 1950’s revolved around cowboys and Indians. Parents encouraged their boys to play these games as it both emphasized their masculinity and American-ness. Boys used toy knives and guns to fight against the ‘indians’, subsequently learning to reject all those (including communist) who did not adhere to traditional American values. Another article alludes to the passive role girls would play in these games; little girls would dress up in bonnets and aprons and play the wife or daughter of a cowboy, instead of being a cowboy itself. In addition, many authors I read discussed the polarized masculine and feminine skills toys would teach children. Girls learned to play with Easy-bake ovens and barbies, representing the domestic skills and appearance they were one day expected to assume. In contrast, boys played with guns, astronauts, GI Joes, and toy cars, representing the limitless possibilities that their future could encompass. In my RBA, I hope to discuss how the vast majority of Cold War play and toys were both a nostalgic symbol of past American values and a physical representation of the roles boys and girls were expected to one day assume. Because it has not been deeply discussed in the writings I’ve read, I want to specifically explore how many toys promote toxic masculine characteristics in boys, often encouraging them to reject all feminine or homosexual tendencies.

 

 

Star Trek, The Wizard of Oz, and When Politics Meet Fantasy

Johanna Francis

PWR 1: Containment Rhetoric

Shannon Hervey

October 25, 2017

In his article, “Cold War Pop Culture and the Image of U.S. Foreign Policy: The Perspective of the Original Start Trek Series”, Nicholas Evan Sarantakes demonstrates the ways in which Star Trek’s writers inserted their collective political agenda into the show’s episodes. Though the writers’ perspectives were often critical of the U.S. government’s actions and policies, the television show’s futuristic setting provided a perfect “out”, so to speak, in case the show came into question.

The 1968 episode, “A Private Little War,” was one of the more confusing examples of the program’s political agenda. Produced at the height of the Vietnam War, the episode sought to explicate why United States intervention in Vietnam was problematic. The writers of the show had previously signed a petition condemning the war and publicized their views. As such, it seems clear what perspective the episode would offer. The episode’s plot focuses on Kirk and Spock’s visit to a small, tropical planet, obviously meant to represent Vietnam. When they arrive, they notice that villagers are using flintlock rifles, and are perplexed by the planet’s rapid technological development. They soon learn that the Klingons, who are paralleled with the Soviet Union, had been providing weapons to the planet’s people. Kirk decides to offer the same in order to compete, and despite protest decides to go through with it. As the writers were so decidedly anti-Vietnam, this was confusing: “The story never directly indicated why reliance on proxy wars would weaken America’s role as a progressive force in world affairs…Even though Roddenberry had signed an antiwar petition, many people regarded “A Private Little War” as an unqualiaed endorsement of the Johnson administration’s policy” (Sarantakes 23). I found this particularly interesting because to make a clear anti-Vietnam statement, though inconsistent with the government’s wishes, would not have been particularly controversial given the prevalence of protests and anti-war statements in America at the time of airing.

Despite the fact that so many of Star Trek’s episodes contain really obvious political messages, the show was able to air largely without controversy. The idea that the show is taking place on literally another planet makes it so that its writers are able to justify anything that they say as fantasy and not real, even if it is grounded in fact. Since fantasy and science fiction shows are supposedly far removed from reality and created in order for viewers to escape from their real lives, there is room to insert political messages in the form of an allegory. One such allegory is present in the book The Wizard of Oz, which is sometimes thought of as a political commentary on economics in the 1890s. While at face value, The Wizard of Oz is simply a children’s book, the parallels between its characters and the American population are indicative of the larger political message. Additionally, Dorothy’s ruby slippers are silver in the book, which, combined with the yellow brick road to the Emerald city, seem to represent an agenda which has to do with monetary policy.

 

An Examination of Star Trek in Cold War Context

The USS Enterprise, a starship in the Starfleet, which is the military service of the United Federation of Planets, parallels the American army and navy during the nineteenth century. Even though the Enterprise is a military ship, it is framed as participating in a peaceful five year mission to explore new worlds in hopes of seeking out life and civilizations. Sarantakes shows how the Star Trek ship mirrors the primarily scientific focus of the US army and navy during the examined timeframe, saying, “Many fans have argued that this mission makes Starfleet a scientific service rather than a military organization, but the assignment is similar to the role that the U.S. Army and Navy performed during most of the nineteenth century”.

Gene Roddenberry, the creator of the series, memorably summed up the power of science fiction, saying: “Today in TV, you can’t write about Vietnam, politics, labor management, the rocket race, the drug problem realistically.” In other words, due to the politically correct and nationalistic culture of the time, artists and television shows could not openly complain about American policies. By turning to science fiction and fantasy writing, television and fiction writers would veil their political commentary by asserting that they were discussing a mythical time and place. This would allow them to take controversial stances without censorship or backlash and spread their views to the public.

Writers’ projecting their political stances into fictional media is not exclusive to Star Trek. A recent and memorable example would be Boyle’s Slumdog Millionaire. The movie, pitched as an emotional and engaging story following an observant, albeit poor boy through the streets of India, could also be interpreted a scathing critique of class segregation, poverty, and violence in poor areas in the third world nation. While it would be politically incorrect and controversial for Boyle to make a public statement on these issues since he has never faced them, by building his stance into his move, he was able to show viewers his beliefs.

Space Allegory: Star Trek and US Policy/Culture

The TV show Star Trek along with the rest of the collective movies, shows, and novels is one that has captivated audiences for the last 50 years. This large following gives the show and its creators a lot of power in displaying and reflecting the cultural an political views of the United States in its episodes. In the series, this reflection is often achieved through the use of allegorical plot lines within the episodes.

One episode in particular that showcases the usage of allegory within the series is “The Omega Glory.” In the episode, we find the Exeter and its commander stuck in the middle of a conflict between two groups known as the Kohms and the Yangs. As Sarantakes notes, these two groups directly allude to communists and yankees, a reference to the conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union. We also encounter a reference to the US Constitution through the holy papers of the Yangs. Sarantakes makes a good point when analyzing this episode saying, “The message of this episode is that American principles, such as democracy and political equality, distinguish the United States from other world powers.” This idea was definitely used in the Cold War era by the US in order to bolster and create support for its policies. At the same time, the episode also serves as an allegory to the fact that the United States often engages in other conflicts as a “Big Brother” figure. Essentially this means that the US is able to violate some of the standards it sets in order to defend their ideals for the greater good.

Science fiction and fantasy are amazing mechanisms for critiquing the political and cultural climate of society. One explanation for this would be that sci-fi/fantasy produce narratives in a much more entertaining fashion than speeches or other forms of political propaganda. The futuristic setting makes messages much more desirable because we exist in a society whose framework suggests that the future is always brighter should we follow the right path. A good example of this challenging of society is through the character Ellen Ripley in the movie Alien. Her character served as a critique to containment rhetoric in terms of gender roles, because she portrayed a masculine character, which defied the societal norms defined for women during this period.

Star Trek’s Alternative Ideology as Science Fiction

Sarnatakes’ article explores the allegories the famous TV series Star Trek presents between real Cold War politics and the show’s many storylines. Specifically, Sarnatakes explains that the episode “Mirror, Mirror” serves as a clear-cut representation of anti-colonialism versus the prevailing Wilsonian ideology of America up to the 1960s. He specifically writes, “The message of the episode is that a democratic country like the United States is different from and better than its autocratic rival, the Soviet Union, and that U.S. foreign policy should reflect this merit.” In establishing the juxtaposition between the normal Federation that chooses to leave other societies alone and the anti-Federation in an alternate universe that operates with an imperial grip, Sarnatakes constructs the clear intent of the show’s producers as being critical of American foreign policy.

Science fiction is generally known as a futuristic, dystopian or utopian portrayal of our own world or fictional worlds that share characteristics. Because of how distant the universes of science fiction seem, it can be easy for an author or director to lead their audience into believing that there are no allegories on real-world social or political issues at play. Plots such as a galaxy with laser-wielding warriors (Star Wars) and extreme government censorship have captivated readers and viewers worldwide while keeping the underlying narratives relatively secret (save for the Star Trek series). The most prime example that comes to mind has to be Ray Bradbury’s Fahrenheit 451, the famous dystopian novel where the government has ordered all books to be burned to ash in an extreme attempt at censorship. Bradbury disregards the veil that science fiction provides in order to present a legitimate warning to his audience about the threat of over-reaching government. Every page of the book serves as a constant reminder that the government is ultimately a self-preserving institution that can always take further steps to ensure its survival in the face of growing dissent.

The Vietnam War Through Time

When people think of a reliable source of American history during the Cold War, many would struggle to name a television show, let alone Star Trek. However, in Cold War Pop Culture and the Image of U.S. Foreign Policy, Sarantake analyzes not only how Star Trek represented the attitudes of many Americans during the Cold War, but how other experts have viewed Star Trek’s legacy on American history. In particular, Sarantake analyzes the episode “A Private Little War,” focusing on the episode’s allegory to the Vietnam War. In the episode, the inhabitants of a planet engage in a civil war, and the Klingons supply a sympathetic faction with weapons to aid in winning the war. The crew of the Enterprise is then involved in a dilemma as to whether they should intervene. On the one hand, this would prevent the Klingon-sympathetic faction from winning, but on the other it would involve intervening in a developing society, which is strictly against the Federation’s code. As Sarantake put it, the episode was meant to “illustrate the morally ambiguous position of the United States in Vietnam.” The United States had to get involved to stop Communism from spreading to the South, but many questioned whether the United States had a right to be there in the first place.

In the 1960’s, this allegory would have been very clear to those watching the episode. Yet, the military-political issue was still placed in the context of a science-fiction world. This is what give fiction the power to talk about political issues: none of it is real. However, even though the setting and characters are not real, the topics discussed can still be very pertinent and real. In this case, the Star Trek episode could talk about the ethical issue of American involvement in Vietnam without being explicitly labeled as political propaganda. Not only this, but shows such as Star Trek can often reach a much wider audience than a typical political debate simply because people watch the show for their own entertainment, no other incentive is needed. For these reasons, fictional media can side-step the barriers of talking about sensitive issues simply because they take place in a place that is not technically the United States, or any other country for that matter. Another example of fiction that deals with political issues is Animal Farm, in which animals on a farm serve as an allegory for how different groups vied for power after the Russian Revolution.